ANSWERS

1. What is the name of the yellow pigment which gives urine its yellow colour?
   Urochrome.
2. What is the normal urinary output (per kg/day) of an adult dog and cat?
   • Dog = 25-60mls/kg/24 hours.
   • Cat = 10-20mls/kg/24 hours.
3. What is the term used to describe the excess production of urine?
   Polyuria.
4. What is meant by oliguria?
   Decreased urine production
5. What is meant by dysuria?
   Painful or ineffective attempts to urinate (this term my also apply to defecation).
6. What is the term used to describe blood in the urine?
   Haematuria
7. What is meant by the turbidity of urine?
   Clearness of the sample; a cloudy sample is likely to contain sediment.
8. What causes the "pear drop" smell of the urine in ketotic patients?
   Acetone.
9. Why should a urine sample be as fresh as possible?
   The bacteria in urine will replicate quickly, and therefore an old sample will not provide a true representation. Urine may be stored for a few hours in the refrigerator, but tests should ideally be performed as soon as possible following sample collection.
10. List methods of collecting a urine sample from a cat.
    • Natural micturition (via a metabolic cage or specially designed litter tray).
    • Manual bladder expression.
    • Catheterisation.
    • Cystocentesis.
11. The veterinary surgeon asks you to obtain a free flow urine sample from a dog; why should you collect the sample mid-stream?
    A mid-stream sample is less likely to be contaminated with epithelial cells or mucous from the urinary tract.
12. What preservative is suitable for bacteriology tests on a urine sample?
    Boric acid.
13. What is the normal specific gravity range of urine in dogs and cats?
    • Dogs = 1.018-1.045
    • Cats = 1.020-1.040
14. What is the specific gravity of urine measured with?
    A refractometer. A hydrometer may also be used, but this is less accurate.
15. What conditions may be indicated by a high urine specific gravity?
    • Dehydration.
    • Acute renal failure.
    • Shock.
16. What conditions may be indicated by a low urine specific gravity?
    • Increased water intake (polydipsia).
    • Diabetes insipidus.
    • Pyometra.
    • Chronic hepatic dysfunction.
    • Chronic renal dysfunction.
17. What is the normal pH range of urine in dogs and cats?
    • Dogs = 5.2-6.8
    • Cats = 6-7
18. Why are dipsticks not ideal for testing urine samples?
    • Prone to contamination.
    • Can only provide an estimation rather than an accurate result.
    • Not reliable for pH readings.
    • Very ineffective on stale samples.
19. What parameters are measured with a Combur 7 Test (BM Test-7)?
    • pH.
    • Protein.
    • Glucose.
    • Ketones.
    • Urobilinogen.
    • Bilirubin.
    • Haemoglobin.
20. List 3 methods of measuring the pH of urine; which is the most reliable?
    • Litmus paper.
    • Reagent sticks.
    • Electrode meter.

    The electrode meter is without doubt the most reliable method.

21. List possible causes of haematuria.
    • Cystitis and associated infection/inflammation of the urinary tract.
    • Urolithiasis.
    • Nephritis.
    • Thrombocytopaenia.
    • Trauma.
    • Bladder masses.
    • Drug reactions (e.g. some chemotherapeutic agents).
22. What is haemoglobinuria?
    The presence of lysed blood in the urine.
23. List possible causes of haemoglobinuria.
    • Autoimmune haemolytic anaemia.
    • Systemic lupus erythrematosus.
    • Leptospirosis.
    • Babesiosis.
24. Urine collected free flow, from manual bladder expression or via catheterisation usually contains a small amount of protein as a result of secretions from the urogenital tract. Protein levels may also rise following parturition or during oestrus. However, true proteinuria is likely to be indicative of a clinical problem. List some causes.
    • Nephritis.
    • Congestive heart failure.
    • Cystitis.
    • Urethral inflammation.
    • Vaginitis.
25. Name the 2 main techniques used to examine urine microscopically and state the stain used for each.
    • Wet preparation - uses Sedistain (optional).
    • Dry preparation - uses Leishman's stain.
26. List items of interest which may be observed upon the microscopic examination of urine.
    • Crystals.
    • Casts.
    • Mucus threads.
    • Spermatozoa.
    • Bacteria.
    • Funghi.
    • Yeasts.
    • Epithelial cells.
    • Transitional cells.